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Large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable generalization capability with exceptional performance in various language modeling tasks. However, they still exhibit inherent limitations in precisely capturing and returning grounded knowledge. While existing work has explored utilizing knowledge graphs (KGs) to enhance language modeling via joint training and customized model architectures, applying this to LLMs is problematic owing to their large number of parameters and high computational cost. Therefore, how to enhance pre-trained LLMs using grounded knowledge, e.g., retrieval-augmented generation, remains an open question. In this work, we propose Graph Neural Prompting (GNP), a novel plug-and-play method to assist pre-trained LLMs in learning beneficial knowledge from KGs. GNP encompasses various designs, including a standard graph neural network encoder, a cross-modality pooling module, a domain projector, and a self-supervised link prediction objective. Extensive experiments on multiple datasets demonstrate the superiority of GNP on both commonsense and biomedical reasoning tasks across different LLM sizes and settings. Code is available at //github.com/meettyj/GNP.

We design probes trained on the internal representations of a transformer language model that are predictive of its hallucinatory behavior on in-context generation tasks. To facilitate this detection, we create a span-annotated dataset of organic and synthetic hallucinations over several tasks. We find that probes trained on the force-decoded states of synthetic hallucinations are generally ecologically invalid in organic hallucination detection. Furthermore, hidden state information about hallucination appears to be task and distribution-dependent. Intrinsic and extrinsic hallucination saliency varies across layers, hidden state types, and tasks; notably, extrinsic hallucinations tend to be more salient in a transformer's internal representations. Outperforming multiple contemporary baselines, we show that probing is a feasible and efficient alternative to language model hallucination evaluation when model states are available.

Word embedding methods (WEMs) are extensively used for representing text data. The dimensionality of these embeddings varies across various tasks and implementations. The effect of dimensionality change on the accuracy of the downstream task is a well-explored question. However, how the dimensionality change affects the bias of word embeddings needs to be investigated. Using the English Wikipedia corpus, we study this effect for two static (Word2Vec and fastText) and two context-sensitive (ElMo and BERT) WEMs. We have two observations. First, there is a significant variation in the bias of word embeddings with the dimensionality change. Second, there is no uniformity in how the dimensionality change affects the bias of word embeddings. These factors should be considered while selecting the dimensionality of word embeddings.

Large Language Models (LLMs) with strong abilities in natural language processing tasks have emerged and have been applied in various kinds of areas such as science, finance and software engineering. However, the capability of LLMs to advance the field of chemistry remains unclear. In this paper, rather than pursuing state-of-the-art performance, we aim to evaluate capabilities of LLMs in a wide range of tasks across the chemistry domain. We identify three key chemistry-related capabilities including understanding, reasoning and explaining to explore in LLMs and establish a benchmark containing eight chemistry tasks. Our analysis draws on widely recognized datasets facilitating a broad exploration of the capacities of LLMs within the context of practical chemistry. Five LLMs (GPT-4, GPT-3.5, Davinci-003, Llama and Galactica) are evaluated for each chemistry task in zero-shot and few-shot in-context learning settings with carefully selected demonstration examples and specially crafted prompts. Our investigation found that GPT-4 outperformed other models and LLMs exhibit different competitive levels in eight chemistry tasks. In addition to the key findings from the comprehensive benchmark analysis, our work provides insights into the limitation of current LLMs and the impact of in-context learning settings on LLMs' performance across various chemistry tasks. The code and datasets used in this study are available at //github.com/ChemFoundationModels/ChemLLMBench.

Pre-trained language models (PLMs) have been the de facto paradigm for most natural language processing (NLP) tasks. This also benefits biomedical domain: researchers from informatics, medicine, and computer science (CS) communities propose various PLMs trained on biomedical datasets, e.g., biomedical text, electronic health records, protein, and DNA sequences for various biomedical tasks. However, the cross-discipline characteristics of biomedical PLMs hinder their spreading among communities; some existing works are isolated from each other without comprehensive comparison and discussions. It expects a survey that not only systematically reviews recent advances of biomedical PLMs and their applications but also standardizes terminology and benchmarks. In this paper, we summarize the recent progress of pre-trained language models in the biomedical domain and their applications in biomedical downstream tasks. Particularly, we discuss the motivations and propose a taxonomy of existing biomedical PLMs. Their applications in biomedical downstream tasks are exhaustively discussed. At last, we illustrate various limitations and future trends, which we hope can provide inspiration for the future research of the research community.

Knowledge enhanced pre-trained language models (K-PLMs) are shown to be effective for many public tasks in the literature but few of them have been successfully applied in practice. To address this problem, we propose K-AID, a systematic approach that includes a low-cost knowledge acquisition process for acquiring domain knowledge, an effective knowledge infusion module for improving model performance, and a knowledge distillation component for reducing the model size and deploying K-PLMs on resource-restricted devices (e.g., CPU) for real-world application. Importantly, instead of capturing entity knowledge like the majority of existing K-PLMs, our approach captures relational knowledge, which contributes to better-improving sentence-level text classification and text matching tasks that play a key role in question answering (QA). We conducted a set of experiments on five text classification tasks and three text matching tasks from three domains, namely E-commerce, Government, and Film&TV, and performed online A/B tests in E-commerce. Experimental results show that our approach is able to achieve substantial improvement on sentence-level question answering tasks and bring beneficial business value in industrial settings.

Recently pre-trained language representation models such as BERT have shown great success when fine-tuned on downstream tasks including information retrieval (IR). However, pre-training objectives tailored for ad-hoc retrieval have not been well explored. In this paper, we propose Pre-training with Representative wOrds Prediction (PROP) for ad-hoc retrieval. PROP is inspired by the classical statistical language model for IR, specifically the query likelihood model, which assumes that the query is generated as the piece of text representative of the "ideal" document. Based on this idea, we construct the representative words prediction (ROP) task for pre-training. Given an input document, we sample a pair of word sets according to the document language model, where the set with higher likelihood is deemed as more representative of the document. We then pre-train the Transformer model to predict the pairwise preference between the two word sets, jointly with the Masked Language Model (MLM) objective. By further fine-tuning on a variety of representative downstream ad-hoc retrieval tasks, PROP achieves significant improvements over baselines without pre-training or with other pre-training methods. We also show that PROP can achieve exciting performance under both the zero- and low-resource IR settings. The code and pre-trained models are available at //github.com/Albert-Ma/PROP.

Recently, the emergence of pre-trained models (PTMs) has brought natural language processing (NLP) to a new era. In this survey, we provide a comprehensive review of PTMs for NLP. We first briefly introduce language representation learning and its research progress. Then we systematically categorize existing PTMs based on a taxonomy with four perspectives. Next, we describe how to adapt the knowledge of PTMs to the downstream tasks. Finally, we outline some potential directions of PTMs for future research. This survey is purposed to be a hands-on guide for understanding, using, and developing PTMs for various NLP tasks.

Deep learning constitutes a recent, modern technique for image processing and data analysis, with promising results and large potential. As deep learning has been successfully applied in various domains, it has recently entered also the domain of agriculture. In this paper, we perform a survey of 40 research efforts that employ deep learning techniques, applied to various agricultural and food production challenges. We examine the particular agricultural problems under study, the specific models and frameworks employed, the sources, nature and pre-processing of data used, and the overall performance achieved according to the metrics used at each work under study. Moreover, we study comparisons of deep learning with other existing popular techniques, in respect to differences in classification or regression performance. Our findings indicate that deep learning provides high accuracy, outperforming existing commonly used image processing techniques.